Who Is Water Scarce?

About two-thirds of our ''blue Earth'' is covered in water, but only about 0.5%is theoretically available for crop irrigation and other human needs. Furthermore, about 40% of the world's total land area is considered to be drylands, areas characterized by high variability in rainfall amount and intensity, as well as prolonged droughts. Natural soil fertility is low due to lack of nutrients and organic content, hence the water holding capacity is low. Drylands include the arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid climatic regions as this following map illustrates:

Distribution of Drylands - Source

As the map above shows, a large portion of the African continent is considered as dryland (in particular the subtropics) but it does not define the ability to produce food. Take a look at the following map:

2011 Global Hunger Index, IFPRI 

Ranked 30th driest region in the world, South Africa has around 1.6 Mha of irrigated land, which is private-sector driven. The country is facing a multi-year drought; rainfall data visualizations show that compared to the 444mm median rainfall for October, this year and last year were exceptionally dry (135.5 mm for 28th October 2017).  However, despite weather and water constraints, South Africa is amongst the least ''hungry'' countries, according to the map. 

In comparison, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which ''benefits'' from the humid tropical and equatorial climates faces an ''alarming'' hunger problem. While 1.2 billion people suffer from physical water scarcity worldwide, water-rich countries like the DRC still struggle with ''alarming'' food security, and lack of an irrigated system (0.1%). According to the UN Environment Programme, ''three-quarters of the population have no access to safe drinking water, even though the country holds over half of Africa's water reserves''.

Walikale, North Kivu and Luvua River (DRC)- Credit: Julien Harneis/Flickr

What drives a water-rich country into extreme hunger and poverty, while another is able to produce enough food despite physical constraints?

Agriculture is the most important economic sector in the DRC, accounting for 44.9% of the GDP and employing more than 70% of the population (ReSAKSS, chap. 7). However, only 10% of the 80 million square hectares of arable land is under production (Herderschee et al., 2012). The potential of achieving food security and economic development through agriculture is important, such that the country could become a significant net exporter of food. 

''Food insecurity has been exacerbated by decades of conflict, reduced agricultural productivity, and migration out of rural areas. The growing population constitutes an additional constraint to achieving food security in the DRC'' (ReSAKSS). 

Around 3.8 million people have died because of ongoing political instability and crisis in the DRC, 90% as a result of malnutrition and preventable disease. The sustainability of water sources is highly undermined by rapid and uncontrolled population growth coupled with absent land use plans. Exposure to contamination and land degradation can occur due to the lack of  ''any form of identifiable demarcation [...] to deter and mitigate the environmental impacts of potential land use encroachment, as well as wanton sabotage''  [...] For example, water production sites in Bukavu are exposed to sewage infiltration from uphill latrines, constructed in some cases merely five metres from supply springs'' (UNEP, 2011). 

''Residents of Bukavu queue up to collect water from a clean-water point. Credit: OCHA Bukavu/Philippe Kropf''

The leading causes of death in the DRC are preventable (diarrheal diseases), which are directly related to the lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation. 

The prevalence of water-related issues, from diseases to hunger and pollution, shows how important an integrated approach to water management is, with effective governance, to secure development.

What about South Africa?

Agriculture in arid regions ''usually takes place in the most fertile and well-watered areas, often to the exclusion and/or disruption of previous uses'' (JD Unruh). In fact, less than 3% of South Africa is considered as high-potential land, despite a third of the country receiving sufficient rain for crop production. Land degradation and desertification and the ''increasing scarcity of new high-quality arable land means that multiple uses of “high potential” areas will become a priority''(JD Unruh). 

Seen as a ''critically important national asset that is under ever increasing pressure from competing water users [...] the country's water resource must be managed effectively and efficiently so as to bring maximum long-term benefit to the country as a whole'' (PJ Ashton, 1999). The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) started implementing since 2007 artificial underground storage mechanisms in order to protect water resource from evaporation losses and contamination and allow cities to become more water- resilient (DWA, 2009). Artificial recharge is defined as a process that transfers surface water to underground aquifers, most commonly done by injecting water into boreholes or transferring water into spreading basins where it infiltrates the subsurface (DWA, 2009). These mechanisms allow cities like Polokwane- whose water supply usually depends on surface water- to have back up water supplies in case of peak demands or dry periods (DWA, 2009).

The prevalence of undernourished people is below 5% since 1990, according to the FAO. Furthermore, South Africa is a net food exporter. The country was the 10th largest maize producer in 2014. The area under cultivation of maize production remains relatively constant, indicating an increasing trend in intensified production. 

It is evident that different environments offer different means of food production. 

Follow me as I will explore different adaptation measures aimed at promoting the sustainable development of sub-Saharan African countries and ensuring food security.