Agroecology for People and the Environment

The so-called ''Green Revolutions'' produced the dominant agricultural model of today. It is both capital and technology intensive and operated by multinational companies in large estates. It tends to exclude traditional, small crop farmers and, over the last century, provoked an unprecedented rural exodus which has negative impacts on both the countryside and cities. While this model significantly increased agricultural performance in terms of yields, it relies heavily on ever-larger inputs (fertilizers, pesticides...) and irrigation water, which has already passed the point of diminishing returns in many regions (Altieri, 2005). More importantly, perhaps, is the fact that the increase in world food supplies did not reduce the number of people undernourished, which only fell by ''80 million, from 920 million to 840 million between the late 1960s and the early 1990s''. The FAO's Regional Overview of Food Security And Nutrition published in November 2017 has reported that improvements in sub-Saharan Africa flatlined since 2010, and between 2015 and 2016 the prevalence of undernourishment in all regions of the continent ''rose from 20.8 to 22.7 percent''.

A holistic, ecological approach to agriculture must be implemented to address the root causes of hunger and to reverse land degradation. Agroecology acknowledges the fact that the present agroindustrial model has brought us to an ''ecological limit'' and provides an alternative path. It is labor intensive, reduces the demand for purchased seeds and chemical inputs and works in a systems approach that mimics ecosystems. In this spirit, ''agroecology is able to raise agricultural productivity in ways that are economically viable, environmentally benign and socially uplifting” (Altieri et al).

Agroecology is founded on natural enhancement and regeneration by using natural resources efficiently; for instance, by returning waste to productive use. Since sanitation is one of the pressing challenges communities in sub-Saharan Africa are confronted with, agroecology provides alternatives such as the use of human waste in agriculture (and aquaculture): this improves access to clean water and fosters food security (Haq, Cambridge, 2012)

A case in point is the pilot project initiated by TRAX, an NGO intervening in Northern Ghana, with financial support from Self Help Africa and the UK. The project targeted a dryland farming region in the Upper East Region of northern Ghana, the second poorest region in the country (AFSA, 2016, page 14). Poor soils, erratic rainfall and shorter rainy seasons and lack of alternative incomes are the main challenges faced by the communities. Climate change has already produced adverse effects in Pelungu and the traditional millet crop has failed in its historic role of shortening the ''hunger period”. The project aimed at increasing the production of the orange-fleshed sweet potato by family farmers in Pelungu. The orange-fleshed sweet potato is a variety that grows well under drought conditions on and marginal soils. The introduction of orange-fleshed sweet potato has not only shortened the hunger period but also allowed for surplus yield to be sold in the market.

Technical training courses were provided and smallholder farmers were guided throughout the implementation of the project, using Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) techniques. Instead of inverting the soil completely when plowing (increasing the vulnerability to erosion), the farmers learned to stabilize the topsoil with methods such as minimal and zero tillage. Slash and burning of cultivated and uncultivated lands was also a common practice, but Pelungu farmers were advised to adopt non-burning methods, teaching the importance of nutrients from decomposing residues. Lastly, farmers were taught to use compost and farmyard manure as an alternative to expensive and degrading agrochemicals. The family farmers reported that yields were double that of the ordinary sweet potato, increasing the ability to sell excess produce and raising incomes. (ibid.)

African smallholders who depend on agriculture to subsist may be more exposed to the risks of climate change. However, according to the Alliance for Food Sovereignty Africa, the continent already has what it needs to succeed; ''drought-resistant, pest-resistant, high-yielding, open-pollinated, seasonal, and naturally nutritious crops waiting to be integrated into agricultural systems without the need for newly engineered species. The only obstacle is the appreciation, respect and utilisation of these natural resources''.

For more information:

Agroecology, a tool for the realization of the Right to food - Olivier de Schutter, UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food 
Agroecology: the bold future of farming in Africa - AFSA, 2016
Agroecology and the design of climate change-resilient farming systems - Altieri et al., 2015

Seawater Farming

Perhaps you are asking yourself: why should we discuss seawater irrigation? 

The simple answer is: due to the impacts of climate change, the world is seeking renewable sources of energy as alternatives to a fossil-fuelled energy matrix. By the same token, we should be considering alternatives to irrigation from freshwater. Only around 0,5% of freshwater is directly available for human consumption and 70% of freshwater withdrawals are consumed by agriculture. Yet, saltwater drenches 2/3 of our planet, not to mention saline groundwater which underlies much of the land. Also, there are about 20,000 linear miles of sunny, desert seacoast with untapped potential. Bearing this in mind, let us focus on a specific challenge, or opportunity: desert economics. No, this is not about oil being pumped out of the earth!

I came across a documentary called ''The greening of Eritrea'' which I thought would be interesting to share. It follows the development of a seawater farm project conducted by Dr. Hodges together with the government of Eritrea to establish the world's first commercial seawater farm, back in 1998. In a country which suffers from severe malnutrition and poverty, this was not a minor accomplishment. Political instability, however, led to the discontinuation of the project, in 2003. 

Eritrea's economy and agricultural sector have been severely threatened by the combination of war, droughts, and land degradation. Eritrea has one of the highest child undernutrition levels, with the second highest score reported for the Global Hunger Index in 2014. Like many sub-Saharan African countries, the majority of the population depends on agriculture, which is mainly smallholder based and rainfed. Coupled with low total rainfall, insufficient access to seeds, soil and water erosion due to unsustainable land use practices, poor infrastructure and underlying poverty, the country's food supplies are unreliable and insufficient. 

Seawater irrigation showcases systems thinking approach, creating a self-sustaining ecosystem which has the potential to revitalize the arid seacoast, creating jobs and increasing livelihoods.

Too good to be true? 

There are two basic questions regarding desert economics which must be addressed. Firstly, does salt water allow for plant growth? The answer is yes, and abundantly, just think of seaside mangroves. One halophyte (salt-tolerant plant) in particular, Salicornia, was successfully produced in Eritrea's seawater farm project and has great benefits and potential. Salicornia is a sea vegetable rich in minerals and vitamins A, B1, B15, C, and D. This plant is also a great source of oils and can eventually be produced to power jets, as Bilal Bomani, a senior NASA scientist believes:

''So we talk about ideas worth spreading, right? How about this: In sub-Saharan Africa, next to the sea, saltwater, barren desert: how about we take that plant, plant it, half use for food, half use for fuel. We can make that happen, inexpensively'' - Bilal Bomani's TED TALK: Click here to watch!

Dr. Carl Hodges, the scientist behind the initiative, argues that Salicornia grown in desert regions can potentially replace today's soy production, eliminating one of the main threats to the sustainability of rainforests. If adopted on a global scale, seawater irrigation could even contribute to reducing rising sea levels.

So how does it work?

The desert transformations proposed by seawater farming are ambitious, aimed at creating a self-sustaining ecosystem which harbors flora, fauna and biodiversity. To do so, however, would be impossible without investments in infrastructure, namely, the digging of canals and lakes.

A Self-Sustaining Ecological Farming System / Diagram based on Eritrea's Seawater Farm/ Source

A first canal with pumps that lift the seawater is needed and a secondary series of canals and lakes become home to a flourishing aquaculture of fish, shrimp, and mollusks. The biological waste from the aquaculture activities become the fertilizers needed to support the production of Salicornia. Nothing is wasted; the resulting water irrigates lands, replenishing depleted wetlands, revitalizing mangroves and ecosystems which provide essential and valuable services. A veritable virtuous circle. 

According to CN Hodges, in its four years of operation in Eritrea, the Seawater Farms project planted 250 acres of Salicornia and nearly 240 acres of seawater forest. The exportation of shrimp was an additional value which provided incomes and employed nearly 800 people.

Today, other countries are experimenting with Salicornia and other saltwater tolerant plants as sources of food! Of course, there still remain major challenges, ranging from political instability to setting up innovative financing schemes to support this revolution. In Eritrea, the main problem constraining development is the absence of an effective institutional capacity, water policies, and legislation to regulate water management (FAO).

For more information on seawater farming:

Cultivating Salicornia europea, Gunning, 2016
New Options for Climate-Defensive Food Production - Carl N. Hodges, 1980
Ending Global Poverty By Seawater - Planck Foundation

A Story of Regeneration and Reforestation From Eritrea - Circulate News
Greening Drylands with Seawater Easily and Naturally - Khaled Moustafa

Irrigation Limitations

Worldwide, the extent of irrigated land between 1961 and 2009 more than doubled. If yields increased, so have the number of the world's river basins reaching conditions of water scarcity, where it is estimated that more than 40% of the world's rural population lives (FAO, 2013). 

Irrigation eliminates farmers' dependency on rain patterns and allows for a second cropping season. Reliable water supply also allows smallholders to diversify their production and perhaps grow higher value crops. Despite the intensifying focus on irrigation and large-scale infrastructure developments in SSA, small-scale irrigation schemes have a vital role to play and cannot be underestimated. Recent studies (Burney et al., 2013; Bjornlund et al., 2017; Woodhouse et al., 2017) have concluded that small-scale distributed irrigation systems, as opposed to a centralized infrastructure, are more efficient in the SSA context since they are self-managed, less costly to build and maintain. 

Most countries in SSA have little access to irrigated land and efforts must be made to level the playing field so as to enable low-income farmers to diversify their crops. Presently, resource-poor household are incapable of diversifying production and cannot escape the subsistence farming "trap". They frequently make decisions based upon the appearance of plants: "as a result, some farmers are likely to over-irrigate, leading to nutrient leaching and reduced productivity, while others are likely to under-irrigate due to the high cost of fuel, resulting in yield losses" (De Sousa et al., 2017)

While development cannot be achieved without economic growth, overemphasizing economic development often undermines environmental stability and the long-term benefits of development. Large-scale development projects and macroeconomic reforms have ''all too often jeopardized poor people's livelihoods by destroying the resource base'' (IUCN, 2008). 

The Waza Logone floodplain, in the northern province of Cameroon, was designated a Ramsar Wetland of International importance in 2012. In a semi-arid ecosystem where rainfall is variable and livelihoods insecure, the wetland provides abundant natural goods and services which the rural population heavily depend on. In fact, wetlands account for around 86% of the country's freshwater surface area and are a crucial asset for dry-season farming and irrigation. However, the productivity of the Logone floodplain largely depends on the annual inundation of the Logone River. Irrigation schemes, with the construction of dams and canals within and upstream floodplains in Cameroon, have severely affected floodplain hydrology and ecology and undermined the livelihood security of fishers, farmers, pastoralists. 

Source: IUCN, 2008

In 1979, the construction of a small irrigated rice scheme (40 km²) reduced flooding by almost 1,000 km², almost 30% of the original flooded area. The socio-economic effects of this loss are estimated at around $50 million over approximately 20 years, with up to 8,000 households directly experiencing losses of more than $2 million a year through the reduction of dry-season farming, natural resource harvesting and surface water supplies (IUCN, 2008). The economic, environmental and social losses, therefore, largely exceeded the anticipated benefits of irrigation. 

The Sanaga River, which stretches along the South, Centre and West provinces, is the primary water source in Cameroon and currently has two dams. As part of the plans to become an emerging economy by 2035, Cameroon (with the help of development partners) is investing in increasing its energy system with hydroelectricity generation. The government has planned the construction of 3 additional dams along the river and its tributaries, which will supply a major part of the country's energy needs. Are there trade-offs between ''unlocking'' the energy potential and long-term sustainability/resilience? 

Transforming Malawi's Irrigated Agriculture

While maize hybrids (mentioned previously) might increase the resilience of yields to weather shocks in Malawi, they do not seem to promote long-term growth. For this, the government is developing large-scale irrigation schemes. 

I) State of water resources and development context

While overall water availability is adequate in Malawi (noticeably by Lake Malawi, the second largest lake in Africa) water resources are unreliable, due to high inter-annual rainfall variability, poor water storage infrastructure and inadequate catchment/watershed management. According to the WorldBank, agricultural expansion in Malawi has reached its limits. The increasing number of cultivated upper catchments has led to significant erosion, rapid loss of soil fertility and siltation of water courses. Poor land-use dynamics along river banks and wetlands have degraded natural ecosystems, exacerbated downstream flooding and increased the vulnerability to weather shocks. In this context, tackling and reversing these trends is a priority for Malawi. Together with development partners such as the African Development Bank and the WorldBank, the government is implementing large-scale programmes that promote natural resources and integrated water resources management. Agricultural intensification with the expansion of irrigation is at the core of Malawi's Growth and Development Strategy II (MGDS II). 

Figure 1: Malawi Country Map with SVTP location area. Lake Malawi covers
about one-third of Malawi's land mass.
The Shire is the largest river and the only outlet of Lake Malawi
(WorldBank)

II) Shire Valley Transformation Program and Shire Valley Irrigation Project

The World Bank recently approved the allocation of $166 million to transform Malawi's irrigated agriculture, which will help fund the first phase of the Shire Valley Transformation Program (SVTP-I), under the framework of the Green Belt Initiative. The Shire Valley Irrigation Project (SVIP) will also be developed under the programme, which is estimated to run in three phases, over a 14-year period from 2017-2031. According to Malawi’s Minister of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Water Development, the project will engage smallholder farmers to modernize and commercialize agriculture, which he anticipates will lead to a ''half-billion-dollar benefit to the economy”. 

The aim of the program is to provide irrigation to over 40,000 hectares by gravity water (as opposed to pump-based), primarily to the Chikwawa and Nsanje districts (located on the map below), ''eliminating the need for electricity for pumping water from the Shire River''. The project not only aims to boost agricultural production but also improve access to drinking water services, improve the sustainable management of wetlands and protected areas and enhance the tourism potential. By doing so, local populations will be more resilient to droughts and floods which are common in the Shire Valley region, where 80% live below the national poverty line.

Figure 2: A closer look at the SVTP Area Map (Worldbank). 

The first phase (shaded in pink) of the project will include new canal infrastructures (red lines), which will abstract water from the Shire River (Kapichira Reservoir), and flow 34km downstream until the bifurcation point. The potential trade-off with hydropower production from the Kapichira dam is determined to be limited and restricted to periods of water shortages (WorldBank, p.32). A second major canal infrastructure will supply water to the Nsanje district. The project is also designed with a ''conservative'' usage of water, with farm organizations expected to select sprinkler (central pivot) irrigation (more efficient) and drip irrigation 

III) Potential conflicts

The Elephant Marsh (refer to map) was designated a 'Wetland of International Importance' in July 2017 under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. While very few villages are located within the boundaries of the conservation area, due to its proximity to the river and its valuable ''natural'' irrigation potential, I wonder whether the region will become increasingly vulnerable to incoming users and if community-led participatory management will be enough. Also, after full implementation of both SVTP phases, which are intended to intensify agricultural production with a commercial focus, the flow to the Elephant Marshes might be disrupted. The project aims to mitigate this risk through hydrological and biological monitoring, supporting management of Wetland and, eventually, establish ''Malawi's first Community Wetland Conservation Area''.  

Digging a little bit, I found that the Green Belt Initiative (GBI) which was implemented as a ''food security initiative'' ended up focusing on economic development with the expansion of sugarcane cultivation. There is nothing wrong with sugar-cane-- it was expected to improve Malawi's foreign exchange through better export earnings (Malawi is the third most competitive producer in the world!) and thus provide the means to tackle rural poverty by increasing smallholder's incomes.The GBI received funds from the African Development Bank in 2009 (which is also funding the SVTP) as well as EU grants in 2011, but only later did the Minister of Agriculture and Food Security identify on which lands the expansion of sugarcane cultivation would occur; the GBI targeted land that belonged to smallholder farmers (Chinsinga, 2016). In a three year qualitative study that assessed the effects of the GBI on the livelihoods of people in the targeted areas, Chisinga concluded that the promises (increase agricultural output, food security, employment, infrastructure, etc.) outlined under the GBI ''remained rhetorical, while communities in the investment sites are suffering through the destabilisation of the community social fabric, precipitated by persistent, and sometimes violent, confrontations with a coalition of elites determined to serve their own interests rather than those of smallholder farmers'' (Chinsinga, 2016). 

Given the commercial focus of the Shire irrigation project, I have the sense that allying economic development with conservation objectives is ambitious, considering the tendency of natural resources of being sacrificed over earning foreign exchange. However, after the failure of fulfilling, to an extent, the promises held under the national agriculture subsidy program and the GBI, the SVTP brings hope.

Water Efficient Seeds?

Hello!

I thought I'd share another aspect largely promoted under climate-smart agriculture: the use of hybrid seeds, such as water-efficient maize:

Major agribusiness companies such as Syngenta and Monsanto 
have been promoting their genetically modified seeds 
to combat food insecurity

Water Efficient Maize for Africa (WEMA) is a project undertaken by Monsanto, using a patented maize (corn) hybrid approved for commercial release in Kenya, Mozambique, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa. The hybrid aims at resisting drought and insects, thus allowing African small-holders to be resilient against weather shocks. The project is funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Howard G. Buffett Foundation and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). It is coordinated by the African Agricultural Technology Foundation (AATF), who qualify climate change as a major challenge to smallholders in Sub-Saharan Africa, who ''have little resources to effectively manage''. But what resources do farmers need to become self-sufficient and resilient?

For whom is it a ''smart'' solution?

''Improving Lives in Africa'' - The Monsanto video campaign for WEMA

Projects such as WEMA and its successors- Drought-Tolerant Maize for Africa (DTMA) and Stress-Tolerant Maize for Africa (STMA), give rise to social movements and debates on food sovereignty, land grabbing. The African Centre for Biodiversity (ACBio) campaigns against the proliferation of GM breeds and hybrids in Africa, claiming that they are neither the solution in the fight against hunger nor climate change.

Cartoon by ACBio against the import of Monsanto's GM maize in South Africa
(the continent's largest producer of maize) during a period of drought in 2015.

Watch the FAO's video campaign for CSA

The FAO's youtube video campaign for CSA highlights the importance of building the resilience of ''the men and women who produce our food'' -- Yes, perhaps smallholders are most vulnerable to climate-change and holistic, innovative farming techniques are required. However, the video does not mention industrial agriculture (the main cause of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions) and focuses solely on small-holder farmers. 

Is the rest of the world-- major agribusinesses using intergovernmental organizations as vehicles-- imposing on African small-holders a Green Revolution in order to meet future increasing commodity supplies? Is rapid agricultural productivity growth the solution to unlock smallholders out of subsistence and drive ''the natural progress of opulence into industry and services''? (Lipton, 2012). 

Denouncers of climate-smart agriculture (see BioWatch, ACBio, Green Social Thought) claim that with the pretext of helping smallholders to combat climate change, ''under the guise of philanthropy'', TNCs such as Syngenta and Monsanto seek to establish a private sector-driven seed industry in Africa; ''hybrid seeds are capturing African markets at a rapid pace and represent an average of 57% of maize seed grown on the continent'' (Abate et al., 2017). 

''Using the language and even some of the methods of ecological agriculture, 
climate-smart agriculture provides a veneer of sustainability for interventions 
that continue to promote industrial agribusiness products and technologies” - BioWatch South Africa

To what extent are hybrids effective in alleviating climate impacts and water shortages?

Let’s take look at the introduction of maize hybrids in Malawi, a landlocked country in southeastern Africa. Malawi suffers from dry spells which can occasionally impact the rainfall season. The smallest water deficits can lead to significant crop yield losses, especially when they take place during the flowering stage of the main staple, maize (which is grown over 70% of arable land). Irrigation is limited to larger farming operations, with 97% of agriculture depending on rainfall. The agricultural sector supports three-quarters of the population and is comprised predominantly of export-oriented large-scale estates while smallholders concentrate on food crops on plots generally smaller than a hectare (Harrison, 2016). Due to poor government management, lack of rainfall, rising fertilizer prices, food insecurity was rampant for many years and the 2004-2005 season was the worst in a decade, with losses of 24% in maize production.

The national agricultural input subsidy program (AISP) was established in 2005 to promote food security, providing subsidies to enable family farmers’ access to fertilizers and hybrid maize seeds, a promise of resilience against water shortages. The AISP increased total maize production and was praised as a proactive policy allowing to achieve food security. However, the effectiveness of the program has come under scrutiny over the last years. The majority of the population in Malawi is still poor and rural, with an estimated 42% of rural households experiencing food insecurity (Graeub et al., 2016). The increasing wealth gap is raising concerns about inclusive agricultural policies and the questionable fact that the AISP ‘’preferentially benefits better-off farming households, who received more coupons, applied more fertilizer and had more significant changes in food security than poor households’’ (Graeub et al., 2016). Researchers claim that ''the Malawian production miracle appears, in part, to be a myth'' with discrepancies between the maize output estimates distributed by the FAO, the Malawi Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security and the National Statistical Office of Malawi, as well as fluctuating maize prices, which indicate supplies falling short of estimates (Messina et al., 2017). 

In terms of the agroecological sustainability of the programme, an OECD study raises concerns over the impact of inorganic fertilizers on water courses, fauna and soil health. 

To conclude on ''climate-smart'' initiatives, I think that the need to increase food production in African countries is connected to the need of tackling rural poverty. Long-term resilience and sustainability should not be compromised by short-term gains with reliance on external inputs potentially damaging to soil health, water streams, agrobiodiversity, and farmer's sovereignty. If agricultural development is considered essential for human development, I concur with Graeub et al that future research (and policies) must include a deeper understanding and assessment of family farmers’ contribution to food security.